PSY2033 Ch07 Lecture Notes
PSY2033 Developmental Psychology
Ch07 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood (3-6)
Outline 大纲
- Physical changes in early childhood 早期儿童的身体变化
- Three views of the cognitive changes that occur in early childhood 早期儿童认知变化的三种观点
- Early language development 早期语言发展
- Early childhood education 早期儿童教育
Physical Changes 身体变化
General Physical Changes 一般身体变化
- Slim down and shoot up 瘦下来并长高
- Less sleep & More sleep problems 睡眠减少和更多的睡眠问题
- Begin to show handedness 开始显示出利手性
- Improvement in motor skills 运动技能的提高
- Examples: running, hopping, skipping, jumping, and throwing balls 例如：跑步、跳跃、跳绳、跳跃和投掷球
- Cartilage turns to bone at a faster rate 软骨转化为骨头的速度加快
- Bones become harder, providing a firmer shape and protecting internal organs 骨骼变硬，提供更坚固的形状，保护内脏
Sleep Patterns 睡眠模式
- By age 5, most U.S. children 到5岁时，大多数美国儿童：
- Average about 11 hours of sleep a night 每晚平均睡眠约11小时
- Give up naps 放弃午睡
- Cultural variations in bedtime 不同文化的睡眠时间差异：
- Zuni 祖尼人: No regular bedtime, sleep when sleepy 没有固定的睡觉时间，困了就睡
- Canadian Hare 加拿大野兔人: Bedtime after dinner, no naps, sleep as long as they wish in the morning 晚饭后睡觉，不午睡，早晨睡到自然醒
Sleep Disturbances 睡眠障碍
- Causes 原因:
- Accidental activation of the brain’s motor control system 脑部运动控制系统的意外激活
- Incomplete arousal from deep sleep 深度睡眠中的不完全唤醒
- Disordered breathing or restless leg movements 呼吸紊乱或不安腿运动
- Types of sleep disturbances 睡眠障碍的类型:
- Night Terrors 夜惊
- Abrupt awakening from deep sleep, extremely frightened 深度睡眠中的突然醒来，非常害怕
- Walking and Talking 梦游和说梦话
- Fairly common, best not to interrupt 相当常见，最好不要打断
- Nightmares 恶梦
- Common, caused by staying up too late, eating too much before sleep, overexcitement 常见，由熬夜、睡前吃太多或过度兴奋引起
- Frequent nightmares may signal excessive stress 频繁的恶梦可能表明过度的压力
- Bed-wetting (Enuresis) 尿床
- Involuntary urination at night, more common in boys, about 10-15% of 5-year-olds 夜间不自主排尿，男孩更常见，约10-15%的5岁儿童
- Night Terrors 夜惊
Brain Development 脑发育
- Rapid and Profound 快速而深远
- Age 3: Brain is approx. 90% of adult weight 大脑约为成人重量的90%
- Age 3-6: Frontal areas regulate planning and goal setting, density of synapses in prefrontal cortex peaks at age 4 3-6岁：额叶区域调节计划和目标设定，前额皮质的突触密度在4岁时达到峰值
- Age 6: Brain is at 95% peak volume 大脑达到峰值体积的95%
- Corpus Callosum 胼胝体:
- Linking left and right hemispheres 连接左、右半球
- Improves coordination of senses, attention, arousal, speech, hearing 改善感官协调、注意力、唤醒、言语、听力
- Myelination continues until age 15 髓鞘化持续到15岁
Motor Skills 运动技能
- Gross motor skills 大运动技能
- Involves large muscle groups, e.g., jumping and running 涉及大肌肉群，例如跳跃和跑步
- Fine motor skills 精细运动技能
- Using eye-hand and small-muscle coordination, e.g., buttoning a shirt, drawing pictures 使用眼手和小肌肉协调，例如扣纽扣、画画
Handedness 利手性
- Usually evident by age 3 通常在3岁时显现
- Boys are more likely to be left-handed than girls 男孩比女孩更有可能左撇子
- Environmental influence 环境影响:
- Low birth weight and difficult deliveries are associated with left-handedness 低出生体重和困难分娩与左撇子有关
- Twins and triplets are more likely to be left-handed than singletons 双胞胎和三胞胎比单胎更可能左撇子
Artistic Development 艺术发展
- Universal progression of changes 普遍的变化进程:
- Age 2: Scribble, not randomly but in patterns (vertical and zigzag lines) 涂鸦，不是随机的，而是有模式的（垂直和锯齿线）
- Age 3: Shapes (circles, squares, rectangles, triangles, crosses, and Xs) 形状（圆形、方形、矩形、三角形、十字和X形）
- Age 4-5: Pictorial Stage, switch from abstract form to depicting real objects 图画阶段，从抽象形式转向描绘真实物体
Health and Safety 健康和安全
- Preventing obesity 预防肥胖
- Undernutrition 营养不良
- Food allergies 食物过敏
- Death and accidental injuries 死亡和意外伤害
- Health in Context: SES, Homelessness, Pollutants 环境中的健康：社会经济地位、无家可归、污染物
- Exposure to Pollutants 曝露于污染物:
- Parental smoking increases the risk of respiratory infections 父母吸烟增加呼吸道感染的风险
- Air pollution increases the risk of chronic respiratory diseases 空气污染增加慢性呼吸道疾病的风险
- Pesticide poisonings mostly occur in young children 杀虫剂中毒主要发生在幼儿
Cognitive Development 认知发展
Piagetian Approach: Preoperational Child 皮亚杰方法：前运算阶段
Cognitive Advances 认知进步:
- Symbolic thinking 符号思维
- Understanding of identities 理解身份
- Understanding of cause and effect 理解因果关系
- Ability to classify 分类能力
- Understanding of number 数字理解
- Empathy 同理心
- Theory of mind 心理理论
Immature Aspects 未成熟方面:
- Centration: Inability to decenter 集中化：不能分心
- Irreversibility 不可逆性
- Focus on states rather than transformations 关注状态而非变化
- Transductive reasoning 直觉推理
- Egocentrism 自我中心
- Animism: Attribute life to inanimate objects 拟人化：赋予无生命物体生命
- Inability to distinguish appearance from reality 无法区分外表与现实
Understanding Objects in Space 理解空间中的物体
- Challenges for children under age 3 对3岁以下儿童的挑战:
- Difficulty understanding scale models and maps 困难理解比例模型和地图
- Advancing spatial thinking 提升空间思维:
- Using simple maps and models becomes easier after age 3 3岁后使用简单的地图和模型变得更容易
False Belief and Deception 错误信念与欺骗
- Understanding false beliefs 理解错误信念:
- Related to awareness of false beliefs 与错误信念的意识相关
- Requires the ability to refer to two conflicting mental representations simultaneously 需要能够同时参考两个冲突的心理表征
Fantasy vs. Reality 幻想与现实
- Distinguishing between real and imagined events 区分真实和想象的事件
- Magical thinking declines near the end of the preschool period 幼儿园阶段结束时，魔法思维下降
Theory-of-Mind Development 心理理论发展
- Influences 影响:
- Infant social attention 婴儿社会注意力
- Social skills 社交技能
- Encouragement from families 家庭的鼓励
- Bilingual children show better performance in theory-of-mind tasks 双语儿童在心理理论任务中表现更好
Information-processing Approach 信息处理方法
Memory
Development 记忆发展
Young children 年幼儿童:
- Focus on exact details of an event 专注于事件的确切细节
- May fail to notice important aspects of a situation 可能忽略情况的重要方面
Older children and adults 年长儿童和成人:
- Generally concentrate on the gist of what happened 通常专注于事件的要点
Types of Memory 记忆类型
Sensory Memory 感官记忆:
- Temporary storehouse for incoming sensory information 感官信息的临时存储
- Fades quickly without encoding 如果不编码会迅速消退
Working Memory 工作记忆:
- A short-term storehouse for information 短期信息存储
- Limited capacity, permits the development of executive function 容量有限，允许执行功能的发展
- Executive function: Conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems 执行功能：对思想、情感和行为的有意识控制，以实现目标或解决问题
Long-term Memory 长期记忆:
- Storehouse of virtually unlimited capacity that holds information for long periods 几乎无限容量的存储库，可以长时间保存信息
Memory Retrieval 记忆提取
- Recall 提取: Ability to reproduce knowledge from memory 从记忆中再现知识的能力
- Recognition 识别: Ability to identify something encountered before 识别以前遇到的事物的能力
Childhood Memories 儿童记忆
Generic Memory 通用记忆 (Age 2 岁):
- Produce “scripts”—general outlines of repeated and familiar events 产生“脚本”——重复和熟悉事件的大纲
Episodic Memory 情景记忆:
- Remembering a specific event at a specific time 记住特定时间的特定事件
Autobiographical Memory 自传记忆 (Age 3-4 岁):
- Memories that form a person’s life history 构成人生历史的记忆
- Specific and long-lasting 具体且持久
Influence on Memory Retention 记忆保留的影响
- Uniqueness of event 事件的独特性
- Social interaction model (Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach) 社会互动模型（维果茨基的社会文化方法）:
- Children collaborate with parents and adults when constructing autobiographical memories 儿童在构建自传记忆时与父母和成人合作
- Culture affects what children remember 文化影响儿童记忆的内容
- Mothers in middle-class Western cultures tend to be more elaborative than mothers in non-Western cultures 中产阶级西方文化中的母亲往往比非西方文化中的母亲更详细
Intelligence 智力
Psychometric and Vygotskian Approaches 心理测量和维果茨基的方法
- Tests 测试:
- Include verbal items 包括语言项目
- Results are more reliable than nonverbal tests for younger children 结果比年轻儿童的非语言测试更可靠
- Examples: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III) 例子：斯坦福-比奈智力量表，韦氏学前和初级智力量表 (WPPSI-III)
Influences on Measured Intelligence 对测量智力的影响
- IQ score IQ得分:
- Measures how well a child can do certain tasks at a certain time compared with other children of the same age 衡量儿童在特定时间与同龄儿童相比能做某些任务的能力
- Correlation between socioeconomic status and IQ 社会经济地位与智商之间的相关性
- Twin studies show that family life has its strongest influence in early childhood, which diminishes greatly by adolescence 双胞胎研究表明，家庭生活在早期儿童时期的影响最强，但在青春期大大减弱
Vygotsky’s Theory 维果茨基的理论
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 最近发展区:
- Children use “scaffolds” to learn—the temporary support of adults 儿童使用“脚手架”学习——成人的临时支持
- Assess potential with dynamic tests 动态测试评估潜力
- Examiners help the child when necessary by asking questions, giving examples or demonstrations, and offering feedback, making the test itself a learning situation 检查员通过提问、提供示例或演示和提供反馈在必要时帮助孩子，使测试本身成为一个学习情境
Language Development 语言发展
Vocabulary 词汇
- Fast Mapping 快速映射:
- Child learns the meaning of a word after hearing it only once or twice 儿童在听到一个词一次或两次后学习其含义
- By age 3, average child knows 900–1,000 words 3岁时，普通儿童知道900–1,000个词
- By age 6, knows about 2,600 words and understands more than 20,000 6岁时，知道大约2,600个词并理解超过20,000个词
Grammar and Syntax 语法和句法
- Developments 发展:
- Use plurals, possessives, and past tense 使用复数、所有格和过去时
- Know the difference between I, you, and we 知道I、you和we的区别
- Longer and more complicated sentences by age 5-7, using more conjunctions, prepositions, and articles 5-7岁时，句子更长更复杂，使用更多的连词、介词和冠词
- Rarely use passive voice, conditional sentences, or auxiliary verb “have” 很少使用被动语态、条件句或助动词“have”
- Errors with irregular verbs, e.g., “holded” instead of “held” 不规则动词错误，例如，“holded”而不是“held”
Pragmatics 语用学
- How we use language to communicate 如何使用语言进行交流:
- Knowing how to ask for something, e.g., “May I please have a cookie?” vs. “Give me a cookie now.” 知道如何请求，例如，“我可以要块饼干吗？” 与 “现在给我块饼干。”
Social Speech 社会言语
- Speech intended to be understood by the listener 旨在让听者理解的言语:
- Trying to explain something clearly 尝试清楚地解释某事
Private Speech 私语
- Talking aloud with no intended listener 无意听者的大声说话:
- Normal and common in childhood 童年时期正常且常见
- Piaget: A sign of cognitive immaturity 皮亚杰：认知不成熟的标志
- Vygotsky: Conversation with the self 维果茨基：与自己的对话
- More research supports Vygotsky’s view 更多研究支持维果茨基的观点
Delay in Language Development 语言发展的延迟
- About 3% of preschool-age children 约3%的学龄前儿童:
- May have problems in fast mapping 可能在快速映射上有问题
- Many children catch up—especially if comprehension is normal 许多儿童赶上来——特别是如果理解正常
- Dialogic reading helps 对话式阅读有帮助
Early Education 早期教育
Preparation for Literacy 识字准备
- General linguistic skills 一般语言技能:
- Vocabulary, syntax, etc. 词汇、句法等
- Specific skills 具体技能:
- Phonological skills (awareness): Understanding that words are composed of sounds 音韵技能（意识）：理解单词由声音组成
- Vocabulary and grammatical skills: Reading comprehension 词汇和语法技能：阅读理解
- Social interaction: Reading to children 社交互动：给孩子读书
Types of Preschools 幼儿园类型
Child-centered (U.S.) 儿童中心（美国）:
- Stress social and emotional growth 强调社会和情感成长
- Children choose activities and interact individually with the teacher 儿童选择活动并与老师单独互动
Academically focused (e.g., China) 以学术为中心（如中国）
Montessori method 蒙台梭利方法
- Educating children with disabilities 教育有障碍的儿童
Reggio Emilia Approach 瑞吉欧艾米利亚方法
PSY2033 Ch07 Lecture Notes