PSY2033 Ch02 Lecture Notes
PSY2033 Developmental Psychology
Ch02 Theory and Research
Learning Objectives 学习目标
Describe the purpose of a theory in research and two theoretical issues on which developmental scientists differ.
描述理论在研究中的目的以及发展科学家存在分歧的两个理论问题。Summarize the main theories of human development.
概述人类发展的主要理论。Describe the methods of developmental research used to collect data and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
描述用于收集数据的发展研究方法及其优缺点。Explain ethical guidelines for researchers who study people.
解释研究人类的伦理指南。
Basic Theoretical Terms 基本理论术语
Theory 理论
- Definition 定义
- Logically related concepts that describe and explain development, predict behavior under certain conditions, and uncover connections between isolated data.
- 逻辑相关的概念,用于描述和解释发展,预测在特定条件下可能发生的行为,并发现孤立数据之间的联系。
Hypotheses 假设
- Definition 定义
- Explanations that can be tested by further research.
- 可以通过进一步研究检验的解释。
Two Theoretical Issues 两个理论问题
Is development active or reactive?
发展是主动的还是被动的?Is development continuous or discontinuous?
发展是连续的还是间断的?
Active vs. Reactive 主动 vs 被动
Mechanistic Model 机械模型
- Definition 定义
- Human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli; reactive; people are like machines.
- 人类发展被视为对刺激的可预测反应;被动的;人如同机器。
酗酒:机械主义理论家会寻找环境因素,如广告和同伴影响。
Organismic Model 有机模型
- Definition 定义
- Human development is internally initiated by an active organism; occurs in a sequence of qualitatively different stages.
- Environmental factors do not cause development, though they can speed or slow it
- 环境因素不能 cause 发展,尽管可以加速或减速
- 人类发展是由一个主动的有机体内部发起的;在质上不同的阶段中发生。
- Example 例子
- Binge drinking: Do individuals choose friends who prefer to party or study?
- 酗酒:个体是否选择喜欢聚会或学习的朋友?
Continuous vs. Discontinuous 连续 vs 间断
Quantitative Change 定量变化
- Mechanistic Theories 机械理论
- Development involves the same processes continuously.
- 发展涉及相同的连续过程。
Qualitative Change 定性变化
- Organismic Theories 有机理论
- Development involves different processes at different stages.
- 发展在不同阶段涉及不同的过程。
Theoretical Perspectives 理论视角
Perspective 1: Psychoanalytic 精神分析
Freud’s Psychosexual Development 弗洛伊德的性心理发展理论
- Hypothetical Parts of Personality 假设的性格部分
- Id, ego, and superego.
- 本我、自我和超我。
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development 埃里克森的社会心理发展理论
- Stages 阶段
- Each stage involves a “crisis” that must be resolved.
- 每个阶段都涉及必须解决的“危机”。
- Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy 婴儿期): Developing trust in caregivers and the environment.
- 信任对不信任(婴儿期):对照顾者和环境产生信任。
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood 早期童年): Developing a sense of personal control and independence.
- 自主对羞耻和怀疑(早期童年):发展个人控制和独立意识。
- Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool 学龄前): Initiating activities and asserting control over the environment.
- 主动性对内疚(学龄前):发起活动并对环境进行控制。
- Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age 学龄期): Developing a sense of competence and achievement.
- 勤奋对自卑(学龄期):发展成就感和能力感。
- Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence 青春期): Developing a coherent sense of self and identity.
- 身份认同对角色混乱(青春期):发展连贯的自我和身份认同。
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood 青年期): Forming intimate relationships with others.
- 亲密对孤立(青年期):与他人形成亲密关系。
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood 中年期): Contributing to society and supporting the next generation.
- 繁衍对停滞(中年期):为社会做贡献并支持下一代。
- Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood 晚年期): Reflecting on life and feeling a sense of fulfillment or regret.
- 自我完整对绝望(晚年期):反思生活,感到满足或遗憾。
Perspective 2: Learning 学习
Behaviorism 行为主义
- Definition 定义
- Views human development as long-lasting change in behavior based on experience.
- 将人类发展视为基于经验的行为持久变化。
- Views human development as long-lasting change in behavior based on experience.
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Classical Conditioning 经典条件反射: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs).
- 通过联想学习(例如,巴甫洛夫的狗)。
- Operant Conditioning 操作性条件反射: Learning through reinforcement and punishment (e.g., Skinner’s box).
- 通过强化和惩罚学习(例如,斯金纳的箱子)。
- Classical Conditioning 经典条件反射: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs).
Social Learning Theory 社会学习理论
- Albert Bandura 阿尔伯特·班杜拉
- Behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models.
- 行为通过观察和模仿模型而学习。
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Reciprocal Determinism 相互决定论: The person acts on the world, and the world acts on the person. 个人对世界的影响,世界对个人的影响。
- Self-efficacy 自我效能感: Belief in one’s ability to succeed.
- 相信自己成功的能力。
Perspective 3: Cognitive 认知
Cognitive-Stage Theory 认知阶段理论
- Jean Piaget 让·皮亚杰
- 关注反映这些过程的思维过程和行为。
- Key Stages 关键阶段
- Sensorimotor Stage 感知运动阶段: Birth to 2 years; learning through sensory and motor interactions.
- 出生到2岁;通过感官和运动互动学习。
- Preoperational Stage 前运算阶段: 2 to 7 years; developing language and symbolic thinking.
- 2到7岁;发展语言和符号思维。
- Concrete Operational Stage 具体运算阶段: 7 to 11 years; logical thinking about concrete objects.
- 7到11岁;对具体事物的逻辑思维。
- Formal Operational Stage 形式运算阶段: 11 years and up; abstract and hypothetical thinking.
- 11岁及以上;抽象和假设思维。
- Sensorimotor Stage 感知运动阶段: Birth to 2 years; learning through sensory and motor interactions.
Sociocultural Theory 社会文化理论
- Lev Vygotsky 列夫·维果斯基
- Views cognitive growth as a collaborative process.
- 将认知成长视为一个协作过程。
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 最近发展区: The difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help. 孩子独自能做的事情和在帮助下能做的事情之间的差距。
- Scaffolding 支架: Temporary support to help a child master a task. 临时支持帮助孩子掌握任务。
Information-Processing Approach 信息处理方法
- Definition 定义
- Analyzes processes involved in making sense of incoming information.
- 分析理解输入信息过程中涉及的过程。
- Analyzes processes involved in making sense of incoming information.
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Focuses on the ways children process, store, and retrieve information.
- 关注儿童处理、存储和检索信息的方式。
- Focuses on the ways children process, store, and retrieve information.
Neo-Piagetian Theories 新皮亚杰理论
- Definition 定义
- Combines Piaget’s theory with information-processing approaches.
- 结合皮亚杰理论和信息处理方法。
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Emphasizes the variability in cognitive development across different domains.
- 强调不同领域中认知发展的可变性。
Perspective 4: Contextual 语境
- Bioecological Theory 生物生态理论
- Urie Bronfenbrenner 乌里·布伦芬布伦纳
- Development can be understood only in its social contexts.
- 发展只能在其社会语境中理解。
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Microsystem
- 这是个体直接接触和互动的环境,包括家庭、学校、同伴关系等。在这个层次上,个体与环境之间的相互作用是最直接和最亲密的。
- Mesosystem
- 这是指不同 Microsystem 之间的相互关系和相互作用。例如,家庭与学校之间的互动,父母与老师之间的交流等。
- Exosystem
- 这是个体并不直接参与但会间接影响个体发展的环境,例如父母的工作场所、社区服务、地方政府政策等。
- Macrosystem
- 这是指更广泛的文化、社会价值观、法律和经济系统,这些都会影响个体的成长和发展。
- Microsystem
Perspective 5: Evolutionary 进化
- Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory 达尔文的进化论
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Survival of the Fittest 适者生存: Animals with traits suited to the environment survive.
- Natural Selection 自然选择: Traits change in adaptiveness as environments change.
- 适应环境的动物存活下来。
- 随着环境变化,特征的适应性也会变化。
Ethology 动物行为学
- Definition 定义
- Study of distinctive adaptive behavior of animal species.
- 研究动物物种独特的适应性行为。
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Innate behaviors evolved to increase survival odds.
- 进化出的先天行为以提高生存几率。
- Examples: Imprinting, squirrels burying nuts.
- 示例:印记行为,松鼠埋坚果。
Evolutionary Psychology 进化心理学
- Definition 定义
- How biology and environment interact to produce behavior and development.
- 生物和环境如何相互作用产生行为和发展。
- Key Concepts 关键概念
- Development of mechanisms to solve problems for personal survival and genetic legacy.
- 为个人生存和基因遗传而发展出解决问题的机制。
- Example: Morning sickness in pregnant women as a protective mechanism.
- 示例:孕妇的晨吐作为保护机制。
Research Design 研究设计
Developmental Research Designs 发展研究设计
- Cross-sectional 纵断面设计
- 在某一时间点评估人们。
- Advantages 优点: 快速且成本效益高。
- Disadvantages 缺点: 无法推断随时间的变化。
- Longitudinal 纵向设计
- 同一人多次研究。
- Advantages 优点: 可以跟踪随时间的变化
- Disadvantages 缺点: 耗时且昂贵,存在参与者退出的风险。
- Sequential 序列设计
- 结合纵断面和纵向设计。
- Advantages 优点: 结合两种设计的优点,增加更多数据。
- Disadvantages 缺点: 复杂且资源密集。
Research Ethics 研究伦理
- Milgram Experiments 米尔格伦实验
- Acute Effects 急性效应: 大多数参与者表现出极度不安。
- Chronic Effects 慢性效应: 使用解密和后续跟进不一致。米尔格伦声称大多数参与者表示从中受益,但最近的调查对此表示怀疑。
PSY2033 Ch02 Lecture Notes