PSY2013 Lecture 01 Notes
PSY2013 Research Methods in Psychology
Ch01 Scientific Thinking in Psychology
Ch02 Ethics in Psychological Research
Scientific Thinking: Learning Objectives 科学思维：学习目标
Defend the need for a research methods course for psychology students 为心理学学生开设研究方法课程的必要性辩护
- Foundation for understanding other psychology courses, which are based on research
- 研究方法课程为理解其他基于研究的心理学课程奠定基础
Explain how the overall purpose of a methods course differs from other psychology courses 解释方法课程的总体目的如何与其他心理学课程不同
- Methods course teaches the process of acquiring knowledge about psychological phenomena
- 方法课程教授获取心理现象知识的过程
Identify and evaluate nonscientific ways of knowing about things in the world – authority, reasoning, and experience 识别和评估关于世界事物的非科学认知方式——权威、推理和经验
Describe the attributes of science as a way of knowing 描述科学作为一种认知方式的属性
- Assumes determinism and discoverability
- 假定决定论和可发现性
- Systematic observations, public knowledge, data-based conclusions
- 系统的观察，公开的知识，基于数据的结论
Distinguish science from pseudoscience and recognize the attributes of pseudoscientific thinking 区分科学与伪科学，并识别伪科学思维的属性
- Pseudoscience associates itself with real science, relies on anecdotal evidence, sidesteps falsification
- 伪科学与真正的科学联系在一起，依赖轶事证据，回避证伪
Describe the main goals of research in psychology and relate them to various research strategies to be encountered later in the book 描述心理学研究的主要目标，并将其与书中稍后提到的各种研究策略联系起来
Ways of Knowing 认知方式
Authority 权威
- Basing beliefs on what we are told by others (e.g., parents, teachers, textbooks)
- 基于他人告知的内容建立信念（例如，父母、老师、教科书）
- Problem: authorities can be wrong
- 问题：权威也可能是错误的
Reason / Logical Argument 推理 / 逻辑论证
- Use of reason via conversation to come to a consensus
- 通过对话使用推理达成共识
- Problems: initial assumptions may be incorrect; valid arguments can lead to opposite conclusions
- 问题：初始假设可能是错误的；有效的论证可能导致相反的结论
Empiricism / Direct Experience 经验主义 / 直接经验
- Process of learning via direct observation or experience
- 通过直接观察或经验学习的过程
- Problems: experiences are limited to our interpretations; influenced by social cognition biases
- 问题：经验受到我们解释的限制；受到社会认知偏见的影响
- Confirmation Bias 确认偏见: Tendency to seek information that supports one’s beliefs
- Belief Perseverance 信念固守: Holding onto beliefs despite contradictory evidence
- Availability Heuristic 可得性启发: Overestimating the frequency of memorable events
Science as a Way of Knowing 科学作为一种认知方式
Attributes of Science 科学的属性
- Assumes determinism (events have causes) and discoverability (causes can be discovered)
- 假定决定论（事件有原因）和可发现性（原因可以被发现）
- Systematic observations, less affected by bias
- 系统的观察，受偏见影响较小
- Produces public knowledge (objectivity criterion)
- 产生公开的知识（客观性标准）
- Produces data-based conclusions
- 产生基于数据的结论
- Produces tentative conclusions (subject to future research)
- 产生暂定结论（取决于未来的研究）
- Asks answerable questions (empirical questions)
- 提出可回答的问题（实证问题）
- Develops theories that can be falsified (falsification criterion)
- 发展可证伪的理论（证伪标准）
Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience 区分科学与伪科学
- Pseudoscience associates with real science, relies on anecdotal evidence, avoids falsification
- 伪科学与真正的科学联系在一起，依赖轶事证据，回避证伪
The Goals of Research in Psychology 心理学研究的目标
Describe 描述
- Identify regularly occurring sequences of psychological events
- 识别经常发生的心理事件序列
Predict 预测
- Psychological events follow certain “laws” that are regular and predictable
- 心理事件遵循某些规律，这些规律是规律性的和可预测的
Explain 解释
- Psychological events are explained in terms of their relationship to other factors
- 心理事件通过其与其他因素的关系来解释
- Causal explanations are ideal
- 因果解释是理想的
Apply 应用
- Science informs real-world applications of psychological events
- 科学为心理事件的现实应用提供信息
Ethics in Psychology: Learning Objectives 心理学伦理：学习目标
- Describe the origins of the APA ethics code 描述APA伦理守则的起源
- Articulate the code’s five general principles, especially as they apply to research in psychology 阐明该守则的五项一般原则，尤其是在心理学研究中的应用
- Describe the role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) in the research process and what needs to be done by the researcher to achieve IRB approval of research 描述机构审查委员会（IRB）在研究过程中的作用，以及研究人员需要做什么才能获得IRB批准
- Explain when research proposals are exempt from IRB review, eligible for expedited review, or in need of a full formal review 解释何时研究提案可以免于IRB审查、何时可以加速审查、何时需要全面正式审查
- Explain why the decision-making processes of IRBs have occasionally been controversial 解释为什么IRB的决策过程有时具有争议
- Identify the essential features of a researcher’s ethical responsibilities when completing psychological research using adult human participants 识别研究人员在使用成人参与者进行心理学研究时的基本伦理责任
- Describe historical examples of research that raised serious ethical questions 描述引发严重伦理问题的历史研究实例
- Identify the ethical questions involved when completing research using children and those from special populations (e.g., prisoners, nursing home residents) 识别在使用儿童和特殊人群（如囚犯、养老院居民）进行研究时涉及的伦理问题
- Describe how the ethics code applies to research that involves using the Internet 描述伦理守则如何适用于涉及使用互联网的研究
- Describe the arguments for and against the use of animals in psychological research 描述在心理学研究中使用动物的支持和反对论点
- Identify the essential features of a researcher’s ethical responsibility when completing psychological research using animal subjects 识别在使用动物作为受试者进行心理学研究时研究人员的基本伦理责任
- Identify the varieties of scientific dishonesty, how it can be detected, and understand some of the reasons why misconduct sometimes occurs in science 识别科学不诚实的各种形式，如何检测，并理解为什么有时会在科学中发生不端行为
Ethics Code 伦理守则
What is ethics? 什么是伦理？
- Standards governing the conduct of a person or the members of a profession.
- 规范个人或职业成员行为的标准。
- Morality are guidelines that affect individuals, and ethics are guidelines for entire larger groups.
- 道德是影响个人的准则，伦理是影响整个更大群体的准则。
- Law sets minimum standards of behavior while ethics sets maximum standards.
- 法律设定最低行为标准，而伦理设定最高行为标准。
Why do we need ethical guidelines in psychology? 为什么我们需要心理学的伦理指南？
- Obliged by law, morality, and social norm to follow basic ethical principles in the treatment of humans and other animals.
- 法律、道德和社会规范要求我们在对待人类和其他动物时遵循基本伦理原则。
- Expected to produce research that is meaningful and helpful to society.
- 期望产出对社会有意义和有帮助的研究。
Developing the APA Code of Ethics 制定APA伦理守则
Historical cases of ethically questionable research 伦理上有争议的历史研究案例
- Watson & Rayner (1920) – Scaring Little Albert 恐吓小阿尔伯特
- McGraw (1941) – Effects of repeated pinpricks 反复针刺的效果
- Dennis (1941) – Raising children in isolation 在隔离环境中抚养孩子
First code → 1953 第一版守则 → 1953
- Hobbs committee
- 霍布斯委员会
- Critical incidents technique: Surveying APA members for examples of unethical conduct.
- 关键事件技术：调查APA成员关于不道德行为的例子。
APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct → 2002 (2010 amendments) APA心理学家伦理原则和行为守则 → 2002（2010年修订）
APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct APA心理学家伦理原则和行为守则
- 5 General Principles 五项一般原则
- Beneficence and Nonmaleficence 有益与无害原则
- Constantly weigh costs & benefits; protect from harm; produce for the greatest good.
- 不断权衡成本和收益；保护免受伤害；产生最大的利益。
- Fidelity and Responsibility 诚信与责任
- Be professional; constantly be aware of responsibility to society.
- 保持专业；不断意识到对社会的责任。
- Integrity 正直
- Be scrupulously honest in all aspects of the research enterprise.
- 在研究工作各个方面都要严格诚实。
- Justice 公正
- Always treat people fairly & maintain a level of expertise.
- 始终公平对待他人并保持专业水平。
- Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity 尊重人权和尊严
- Safeguard individual rights; protect rights of privacy and confidentiality.
- 保护个人权利；保护隐私和保密权利。
- Beneficence and Nonmaleficence 有益与无害原则
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans 人类研究的伦理指南
Weighing Benefits and Costs: The IRB 权衡收益与成本：IRB
- IRB = Institutional Review Board
- IRB = 机构审查委员会
- Determines whether the project meets ethical guidelines.
- 确定项目是否符合伦理指南。
- Key factor: degree of risk to subjects.
- 关键因素：对受试者的风险程度。
- No risk 无风险: Could be exempt from review.
- 可能免于审查。
- Minimal risk 最小风险: Eligible for expedited review.
- 适合加速审查。
- At risk 有风险: Requires full review.
- 需要全面审查。
Informed Consent 知情同意
- Sufficient information provided to research participants to decide whether to participate.
- 向研究参与者提供足够的信息，以决定是否参与。
- Historical examples of poor consent:
- Tuskegee syphilis study: Withheld treatment without participants’ knowledge.
- 塔斯基吉梅毒研究：在参与者不知情的情况下扣留治疗。
- Willowbrook hepatitis study
- 威洛布鲁克肝炎研究
- MK-ULTRA (CIA & LSD)
- MK-ULTRA（CIA和LSD）
Deception in Research 研究中的欺骗
- Desire to have subjects act naturally.
- 希望受试者自然表现。
- Example: Milgram obedience study (1963).
- 例子：米尔格伦服从研究（1963）。
- No consent needed in some circumstances (e.g., some survey, educational, archival, and observational research).
- 在某些情况下无需同意（例如，一些调查、教育、档案和观察研究）。
Treating Participants Well 善待参与者
- Debriefing: Post-experimental explanation of the study’s purpose.
- 事后解释：解释研究的目的。
- Dehoaxing and desensitizing participants.
- 揭露真实目的和减少参与者的敏感性。
Consent with Special Populations 特殊人群的同意
- Children: Parental assent also needed.
- 儿童：需要父母的同意。
- Avoid feelings of coercion.
- 避免强迫感。
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals 动物研究的伦理指南
Animal Rights 动物权利
- Using animals in psychological research aids both humans and animals.
- 在心理学研究中使用动物有助于人类和动物。
APA Code for Animal Research APA动物研究伦理守则
- Justifying the study.
- 研究的合理性。
- Cost-benefit analysis.
- 成本收益分析。
- Caring for the animals (expertise with species).
- 照顾动物（物种专业知识）。
- Using animals for educational purposes: Minimize use.
- 为教育目的使用动物：减少使用。
Scientific Fraud 科学欺诈
- Plagiarism 剽窃
- Unethical representation of someone else’s ideas or words as one’s own.
- 不道德地将他人的思想或文字作为自己的代表。
- Falsifying Data 伪造数据
- Explicit effort to misrepresent data.
- 明确努力歪曲数据。
- Varying degrees of misconduct.
- 不同程度的不端行为。
Summary 总结
- Psychology is a science that adheres to the assumptions and goals of science. 心理学是一门遵循科学假设和目标的科学。
- Science distinguishes itself from pseudoscience by being systematic, empirical, data-driven, tentative, and falsifiable. 科学通过系统性、实证性、数据驱动、暂定性和可证伪性区分自己与伪科学。
- As psychological researchers, we adhere to a Code of Ethics regarding research with humans and animals. 作为心理学研究人员，我们遵循关于人类和动物研究的伦理守则。
- The APA code and IRBs guide our decisions and actions in conducting research ethically, responsibly, and with integrity. APA守则和IRB指导我们在进行研究时的决策和行动，以确保伦理、责任和诚信。
PSY2013 Lecture 01 Notes